BACKGROUND: nanoparticles) were synthesized with the seed extract of Trachyspermum ammi. RESULTS: NPs upregulated the expression of carotenoid biosynthesis pathway genes including Phytoene synthase, Phytoene desaturase, Beta cyclase and Epsilon cyclase, indicating their role in plant defense. CONCLUSION: O₃ nanoparticles improved physiological and biochemical parameters and activated defense-related gene expression, which successfully inhibited the V. dahliae growth and increased resistance in marigold plants. These results imply that Fe₂O₃ NPs produced from T. ammi seed extract could be a viable and environmentally friendly method of controlling Verticillium root rot in marigolds.
Saleem et al. (2026) studied this question.