From Conversion to Conservation: Frontier Expansion and Forests in the Eastern Salient of Colonial Java

The dominance of natural forest as the main element of the environmental landscape in the eastern salient of Java decreased rapidly during the Dutch colonial era. The process occurred alongside the growth of the population – driven by immigration – and the development of food crops and commercial agriculture, as key factors pushing back forest area. Drawing upon primary and secondary materials, this article discusses the shift in orientation from conversion to conservation from c. 1800 to 1940. As the environmental consequences of deforestation became apparent, colonial authorities and scientists recognised the need for conservation. By the late colonial period, the eastern salient had developed Java’s largest conservation areas, reflecting a shift toward protecting larger ecosystems and addressing long-term sustainability. This transformation underscores a dual narrative of economic expansion through agricultural innovation and environmental degradation, highlighting the ongoing tension between development and conservation.