Assessing thought conditioning: investigating measurement approaches and the impact of higher-order conditioning

Recent studies suggest that thought content can be shaped through Pavlovian procedures. This experimental study aimed to investigate whether conditioned reports of thought content can be detected using alternative measures beyond rating scales, including spontaneously self-reported thoughts and self-caught thought tasks. Additionally, we examined whether thoughts are also shaped through higher-order conditioning. Participants ( N = 58) took part in a first-order conditioning procedure in which neutral faces (CS) were paired with an aversive image (US). Prior to and following these pairings, some CSs were associated with other neutral faces within sensory preconditioning, others with new neutral faces within second-order conditioning. Results indicated that stimuli directly paired with the US elicited significantly more US-related thoughts (as evidenced by the content of self-reported thoughts) than unpaired stimuli, supporting the effects of conditioning procedures on spontaneous thought content. Notably, self-reported and self-caught thought measures yielded results consistent with those obtained through rating scales, reinforcing the convergent validity of these assessment methods. These findings suggest that associative learning mechanisms contribute to thought emergence. This research has potential implications for understanding anxious and intrusive thoughts in anxiety disorders, and highlight the need for further investigation into individual differences and methodological refinements. However, no evidence of higher-order conditioning was observed, either for thought-related measures or for traditional indices of Pavlovian conditioning. • Conditioned thoughts can be detected using spontaneous self-reported thought measure. • Neutral faces paired with an aversive image triggered spontaneous thoughts. • Findings may explain how some unwanted thoughts arise.