Near-Infrared Spectroscopy-Based Frontal Lobe Neurofeedback Integrated in Virtual Reality Modulates Brain and Behavior in Highly Impulsive Adults

Figures

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  FIGURE 1. The virtual reality classroom scenario. The top image depicts the view from the participant’s head-mounted display (HMD). An arrow pointing either up or down was displayed on the chalkboard. If the arrow pointed downward, the participant should decrease the lighting in the classroom. If it pointed up, the participant should increase the lighting in the classroom. If the participant performed the task adequately, they would receive one to three smileys, presented on the chalkboard, based on the duration of success.

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  FIGURE 2. Probeset. Depiction of the target regions of the neurofeedback training (in red) and the rest of the optode array. The optodes cover a space mostly located in the dlPFC (blue, Brodmann areas 9 and 46) but also extending to the inferior frontal gyrus (green, Brodmann area 45) according to a virtual registration method (see subsection Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Data).

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  FIGURE 3. Feedback block design. fNIRS-based NF blocks consisted of either 12 NF trials and subsequent rest trials (continuous feedback blocks one and three) or 8 NF trials and subsequent rests (transfer block two). EMG-based BF blocks consisted of either 24 BF trials and subsequent rests (continuous feedback blocks one and three) or 16 BF trials and subsequent rests (transfer block two). In both conditions, blocks always began with a rest trial.

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  FIGURE 4. (A) No-go FA errors. Mean total FA errors for the no-go condition shown for both groups for both pre- and post-test. ∗p = 0.01. (B) Rate of learning correlation with FA reduction. In the experimental group, there was a strong correlation between rate of learning of the feedback parameter (prefrontal oxygenation) and pre–post reduction in FA errors committed.

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  FIGURE 5. (A) Contrasted t-maps of the average amplitudes of O2Hb for different blocks of the go/no-go task. Contrasts represent post-test values minus pre-test values. CTR represents the EMG control group, while EXP represents the experimental fNIRS group. T-values were obtained by t-tests corrected for multiple comparisons with the Armitage–Parmar correction. Positive channels indicate stronger activation in the post-relative to the pre-test. Significant channels are depicted in black. (B) ROI event-related averages. Circled regions from (A) indicate the left dlPFC ROI for which the event-related average of O2Hb ± standard error of the mean (SEM) is depicted for both pre-(blue) and post-(red) tests.