Three-Dimensional Engineered Peripheral Nerve: Toward a New Era of Patient-Specific Nerve Repair Solutions

models of peripheral nerve tissues that represent the physiologically and functionally relevant environment of human organs could also be developed. However, the technology is still nascent and faces major translational hurdles. In this review, we spotlighted the clinical burden of PNIs and most up-to-date treatment to address nerve gaps. Next, a summarized illustration of the nerve ultrastructure that guides research solutions is discussed. This is followed by a contrast of the existing bioengineering strategies used to repair peripheral nerve discontinuities. In addition, we elaborated on the most recent advances in 3D printing and biofabrication applications in peripheral nerve modeling and engineering. Finally, the major challenges that limit the evolution of the field along with their possible solutions are also critically analyzed. Impact statement Complex nerve injuries, including critical-sized gaps (>3 cm loss of substance), gaps involving nerve bifurcations, and those associated with ischemic environments, are difficult to manage. A biomimetic, personalized peripheral nerve tissue surrogate to address these injuries is lacking. The peripheral nerve repair market currently represents a multi-billion-dollar industry that is projected to expand. Given the clinical and economical dilemmas posed by this medical condition, it is crucial to devise novel and effective nerve substitutes. In this review article, we discuss progress in three-dimensional printing technologies, including biofabrication and nerve computer-aided design modeling, toward achieving a patient-specific and biomimetic nerve repair solution.