An empirical model for wind-generated ocean noise

An empirical model for wind-generated underwater noise is presented that was developed using an extensive dataset of acoustic field recordings and a global wind model. These data encompass more than one hundred years of recording-time and capture high wind events, and were collected both on shallow continental shelves and in open ocean deep-water settings. The model aims to explicitly separate noise generated by wind-related sources from noise produced by anthropogenic sources. Two key wind-related sound-generating mechanisms considered are: surface wave and turbulence interactions, and bubble and bubble cloud oscillations. The model for wind-generated noise shows small frequency dependence (5 dB/decade) at low frequencies (10-100 Hz), and larger frequency dependence (∼15 dB/decade) at higher frequencies (400 Hz-20 kHz). The relationship between noise level and wind speed is linear for low wind speeds (<3.3 m/s) and increases to a higher power law (two or three) at higher wind speeds, suggesting a transition between surface wave/turbulence and bubble source mechanisms. At the highest wind speeds (>15 m/s), noise levels begin to decrease at high frequencies (>10 kHz), likely due to interaction between bubbles and screening of noise radiation in the presence of high-density bubble clouds.