Emerging Fabrication Strategies and Multiscale Characterisation of Radiation Shielding Materials: A Review

Ionizing radiation presents significant hazards in medical radiology, aerospace, and nuclear power systems, necessitating effective shielding for the protection of people and equipment. Conventional shielding materials such as lead remain widely used; however, concerns regarding toxicity, excessive weight, and limited adaptability have accelerated the search for alternative materials. This review examines recent developments in polymer-based materials, composites, nanocomposites, ceramics, concrete, and hybrid systems for radiation shielding applications. The disparity from existing reviews that largely treat material classes independently, this work integrates fabrication approaches, microstructural tailoring, characterization techniques, and application-driven shielding performance. Emphasis is placed on the role of advanced processing methods and nanoscale fillers in enhancing attenuation efficiency. Key characterization tools, including X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, mechanical testing, and radiation attenuation measurements, are critically assessed. By providing a multiscale comparative perspective and highlighting sustainability considerations, this review identifies current limitations and outlines future directions for the development of effective, lightweight, and environmentally responsible radiation shielding materials.