Gamification as a catalyst for energy efficiency in buildings: Behavioural design, engagement dynamics, and implementation pathways

• Gamification is shown to be a scalable behavioural tool for energy efficiency, integrating game mechanics with smart building systems. • Adaptive gamified platforms can sustain user engagement through personalized goals, dynamic challenges, and social comparisons. • Empirical evidence from cross-sectoral applications (e.g., health, education, and workplace) supports the psychological validity of gamification strategies. • Context-sensitive design is essential because different building types and user demographics require tailored game mechanics for effectiveness. • Gamification's success hinges on transitioning users from extrinsic rewards to intrinsic motivations rooted in environmental responsibility. • Policy support, low-tech deployment options, and empirical validation are critical for scaling gamification across diverse energy contexts. Buildings account for a significant portion of global energy consumption, and while technological innovations have improved energy efficiency, behavioural factors remain a critical yet underexploited determinant of energy performance. This study systematically examines the potential of gamification a design strategy that integrates game mechanics into non-game contexts as a behavioural intervention to foster sustainable energy practices in built environments. Drawing on psychological theories such as Self-Determination Theory, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and operant conditioning, the paper articulates how gamification can activate intrinsic and extrinsic motivators to encourage energy-saving actions. A critical synthesis of empirical studies from health, education, and energy domains illustrates the contextual adaptability and limitations of gamified systems. Through the development of a conceptual framework, this study elucidates the mechanisms through which gamification interacts with smart technologies, cultural settings, and institutional structures. Additionally, it addresses implementation bottlenecks, user segmentation strategies, and scalability challenges across residential, commercial, and educational building types. While the findings underscore the promise of gamification, they also caution against overreliance on extrinsic incentives and emphasize the need for adaptive system design. The paper concludes by proposing a research agenda that includes long-term empirical studies, culturally attuned deployment models, and hybrid policy-technological approaches to mainstream gamification in energy management. Rather than claiming a radical transformation, this work offers a grounded yet forward-looking vision for embedding behavioural intelligence into sustainable energy systems.