Despite substantial evidence on how supervisors’ racial composition influences employees’ work-related attitudes, little attention has been given to the reciprocal effects on supervisors themselves. This study examines how same-race subordinates in one’s agency affect supervisors’ job satisfaction, revealing a racially divergent pattern. Using federal employee data from 2020 to 2023, this article finds that White supervisors experience increased job satisfaction when working in agencies with higher proportions of same-race subordinates, consistent with relational demography theory. In contrast, supervisors of color experience decreased job satisfaction under similar conditions, aligning with theoretical expectations regarding the burden of representation and tokenism theory. Mediation analysis demonstrates that this negative association operates through reduced role clarity and deteriorated supervisor relationships, consistent with theory arguments that supervisors of color may face role conflicts between organizational norms and community expectations. However, this burden diminishes as minority representation in leadership increases, becoming positive when exceeding 44% of supervisors. These findings reveal hidden costs borne by minority supervisors and identify when these costs transform into benefits.
Tsai et al. (2026) studied this question.