Frostbite: diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and future directions

mTc) bone scintigraphy, magnetic resonance angiography, single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), and more can play a role in diagnosis and treatment. In resource-constrained environments, such as the deployed setting, management should involve an algorithmic approach. After concurrent hypothermia and/or trauma have been evaluated for and treated, active rewarming should take place so long as there is no risk of refreezing. During re-warming, surgical consultation and evacuation considerations should be considered. Once evacuated to a definitive treatment facility, thrombolytic as well as other therapies may be indicated. Unless there is evidence of severe damage or infection, surgical management is typically delayed until injury margins are fully demarcated. Longer-term prognosis is dependent on severity, with deeper injuries often resulting in longer hospital stays, more amputations, and chronic disability. Looking forward, future frostbite research should aim to bridge field and hospital care with the goal of minimizing tissue loss and accelerating functional recovery.