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The purpose of this study was to determine the causal ordering (predominance) between attitude toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics in secondary school (grades 7–12). Structural equation models were employed to analyze data from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth. Results showed that achievement demonstrated causal predominance over attitude across the entire secondary school. Gender differences in this causal relationship were not found, but elite status in mathematics (measuring whether students took calculus) moderated this causal relationship. We found an imbalanced reciprocal relationship between attitude and achievement across almost entire secondary school for nonelite students, with achievement showing causal predominance over attitude. Such a reciprocal relationship was absent among elite students. When there was a causal relationship between attitude and achievement among those students, achievement always claimed (unidirectional) causal predominance over attitude.
Ma et al. (2004) studied this question.