Review of Trust, accountability and capacity in education system reform: Global perspectives in comparative education

For example, Torsten Husen (2007) argues that "the common problem of the school systems of modern industrial societies -and not so modern societies, I add -is the bureaucratic 'cement cover' which stifles initiative and the innovative spirit" (p. 5). He asserts that there are no universal paradigms for conducting educational reforms. The most common are initiated by national governments and follow a top-down path, usually more concerned with who rules the school systems. Others aim to change the dominant pedagogy or introduce new approaches (constructivism, competencies) in regimes where behaviorism predominates. Still, others emerge from grassroots settings, usually to reclaim cultural values or native languages.