Biological and Therapeutic Potentials of MXenes in Tumor Microenvironment-Driven Oncology

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The emergence of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials such as MXenes has significantly expanded opportunities in precision oncology. With their high surface area, tunable surface chemistry, strong photothermal conversion efficiency, and intrinsic biocompatibility, MXenes offer promising potential for cancer nanotheranostics. This review explores the therapeutic applications of MXenes, focusing on their dual roles in direct tumor ablation and modulation of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). MXenes exert anticancer effects through reactive oxygen species-mediated cytotoxicity and localized photothermal heating while also influencing immune cell function and tumor-immune interactions. Recent studies using single-cell sequencing and high-dimensional immune profiling highlight the capacity of MXenes to modulate immune-mediated tumor cell death. Their selective reactivity in the acidic tumor milieu, linked to the Warburg effect, makes them ideal candidates for pH-responsive drug delivery. We further discuss synergistic strategies combining MXene-based photothermal therapy with chemotherapy, targeted agents, and immunotherapies. Advancing MXene-based cancer therapies requires an integrated understanding of tumor biology, metabolic reprogramming, and TIME dynamics. This multidisciplinary approach is essential for the development of safe, selective, and personalized nanomedicine platforms.