Antibiotic resistance (AR) has escalated into a global health crisis, threatening the very foundations of modern clinical medicine.1 This review provides an in-depth exploration of how bacterial pathogens have evolved to withstand once-lethal chemical agents. The study begins by tracing the historical timeline from the "Golden Age" of discovery to the current "Post-Antibiotic Era," where common infections once again pose a fatal risk.2 We examine the classification of antibiotics based on their chemical structure and analyze the intricate molecular mechanisms, such as efflux pumps and enzymatic inactivation, that bacteria employ to survive.3 Furthermore, the role of horizontal gene transfer via plasmids is highlighted as a primary driver for the rapid dissemination of resistance across diverse bacterial species.4 The review also addresses the critical impact of socio-economic factors, specifically the irrational use of drugs in healthcare and growth promoters in the livestock industry.5 Statistical data presented herein underlines the rising mortality rates associated with multi-drug resistant (MDR) organisms like MRSA and Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae.6 Finally, the paper evaluates emerging therapeutic frontiers, including bacteriophage therapy and CRISPRbased antimicrobials, emphasizing that a multidisciplinary "One Health" approach is essential to mitigate this escalating biological threat.7
Ajmeri et al. (Fri,) studied this question.