From the culture of poverty to inclusive cities: re-framing urban policy and politics

During the early development decades the urban poor were seen as an aberration or an underclass, victims of their own apathy and modest expectations (Lewis, 1961). Today they are more likely to be seen as heroic (De Soto, 1989) or as crucial contributors to inclusive cities (UNCHS (Habitat), 1999). By looking first at urbanization trends and the rise in urban poverty, this article reviews how urban social disadvantage has been variously understood, tracing shifts in analytical emphasis and policy consequences over the last half century. It explores the implications for urban policy and politics of the increasing focus on social exclusion and inclusion, in particular whether a social exclusion perspective affords a better opportunity for addressing issues of inequalities manifest at the level of the city.