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Abstract In this article, we explore how the folk science of physiognomy shaped the training given to salesmen in the early 20th century. In reviewing training and vocational counseling manuals from the past and using them as cultural artifacts, one can put forth the theme that the field of training and development advances only through critical reflection—specifically, questioning training's role within a broader context including issues of social justice. Lessons learned here include the recurring idea that we, in human resource development (HRD), must be vigilant in ensuring that not only are training outcomes ethical but so too are the interventions.
Kopp et al. (Sun,) studied this question.