Local ecological knowledge, ecosystem service perceptions, and conservation attitudes along a forest proximity gradient in Menagesha Suba forest, central Ethiopia

Local ecological knowledge (LEK) plays an important role in how forest ecosystem services (FES) are used, valued, and managed; however, how LEK and FES perceptions vary along a forest proximity gradient remains poorly understood in the dry Afromontane Forest landscapes in Ethiopia. This study aims to understand how forest proximity and household socio-economic conditions influence local ecological knowledge, forest ecosystem service perceptions, and conservation–livelihood trade-offs, with implications for forest management in the Menagesha Suba forest, central Ethiopia. We surveyed 194 households across six kebeles located inside, adjacent to, and outside the forest, complemented by focus group discussions and key informants’ interviews. Multivariate and regression-based analyses were used to assess spatial and socio-economic patterns in FES perceptions and dependence. Respondents identified 17 FES, including provisioning, regulating, and cultural services, with provisioning services dominating both recognition and use across all proximity groups. Forest proximity significantly influences perceived FES composition and availability (PERMANOVA: R2 = 0.106, p = 0.001). Households living closer to the forest reported higher dependence on provisioning services and greater exposure to conservation-related trade-offs, including wildlife-related crop damage and displacement concerns. Perceptions of forest cover decline, reduced FES availability, and increasing climate variability were widely reported and varied with age, household size, wealth status, and forest proximity. Across all groups, agricultural expansion, grazing pressure, fuelwood extraction, and settlement encroachment were identified as key threats of environmental change. Despite these pressures, households across all proximity gradients expressed strong support for reforestation, community-based forest management, and improved access to non-biomass energy sources. Overall, LEK and perceptions of FES vary across social contexts and proximity gradients. Recognizing social and spatial differences in LEK and FES use is important for designing inclusive forest management approaches that reduce livelihood conflicts and strengthen adaptive management in Menagesha Suba forest landscapes and other similar forest-people systems.