Swapping recipes for control.

The comments by Azuma and Kojima are both encouraging and thought provoking. We thoroughly agree that there may be multiple recipes for both primary and secondary control and that a focus on those used in Japan can fill out the picture nicely. We emphasize, in addition, the essential overdetermination of human behavior, and the fact that elements of both primary and secondary control may sometimes underlie the same overt act. Overall, the comments of our Japanese colleagues provide rich food for thought, the proper nutrient for our embryonic model of control. While working on our cross-cultural analysis of control concepts (Weisz, Rothbaum, & Blackburn, 1984), we occasionally wondered if we Americans were engaged in yet another act of primary control. We had a fleeting vision of an American ordering fishsticks in a sushi bar, imposing Western habits and concepts where they do not fit. Had we, like the proverbial Mrs. Paul, modified entities delectable in their natural state by pulverizing, molding, and frying so that they fit our own tastes? The encour- aging and very thoughtful comments by Azuma (1984) and Kojima (1984) suggest that we have not completely deep-fried the Japanese concepts and that the model of primary and secondary control may provide one useful conceptual medium for cross-cultural comparison. Their comments also raise some important issues with respect to the primary- secondary model and cross-cultural psychology gen- erally. Recipes for Secondary Control An important notion suggested by Azuma is that in cultures where secondary control is valued and often pursued, a multiplicity of specific forms may have evolved. Following our piscatory analogy, an Amer- ican first visiting a sushi bar may see raw fish on rice, whereas a Japanese may see a rich array of delicacies, each differing from the others in subtle but very meaningful ways. Similarly, Azuma distin- guishes between subtly different forms of yielding, one reflecting secondary control via an enhanced sense of and self-control; another, sec- ondary control via resigned akirame; and yet another, secondary control linked to feelings of and (p. 970). In his delightful analysis, Azuma demonstrates that each form of yielding carries with it a prototypical aphorism that can be used to reorganize the psychological perceptions of the individual who yields. We agree with Azuma's point, in general. Our first impression was that the three forms of yielding that he describes closely parallel our notions of interpretive secondary control (controlling one's as- sertive drives and thus enhancing one's feelings of maturity and self-control), predictive secondary con- trol (resigned akirame), and vicarious secondary control (yielding related to love and empathy with respect to a significant other). On further reflection, though, it occurs to us that our perception may be a good example of Azuma's point, that is, subtle differences between various forms of secondary con- trol may be more meaningful to the Japanese than to Americans.