Nitrogen use efficiency in crops: integrated assessment, agronomic management, and molecular breeding strategies for sustainable productivity

Abstract Nitrogen (N) is essential nutrient for plant growth and development, and this nutrient is mostly supplied to the plant through organic and inorganic fertilizer. However, approximately 50% of the nitrogen applied to crops is actually absorbed by them, with the other half lost to the environment through processes like leaching, volatilization, runoff, and denitrification. This inefficiency not only wastes resources but also contributes to environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. To mitigate these issues, improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is essential for better fertilizer management and enhanced crop production. Improving NUE by targeted agronomic techniques and high-throughput technology might reduce the dependence on excessive N inputs and mitigate related environmental consequences. The integration of agronomic management with genetic and biotechnology techniques improves N absorption and assimilation in crops. This integrated strategy may result in more sustainable agricultural systems, addresses global food requirements, and conserves natural resources. This review study consolidates the existing research on nitrogen losses, identifies critical factors which can influence NUE, and explores both agronomic and genetic strategies.