Polystyrene microplastics and reproductive toxicity: mechanisms, cross-species impacts, and emerging mitigation strategies

Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are widely distributed in the environment and may have lasting effects on the reproductive health of multiple species. Existing studies suggest that PS-MPs can affect the reproductive system through pathways such as oxidative stress, leading to DNA damage, hormonal imbalances, and inflammatory responses. Because standardized experimental exposure protocols are lacking, there are significant differences in the study results. In addition, there are significant differences between acute exposure in laboratory conditions and long-term low-dose exposure in real-world settings. Studies have confirmed that certain natural substances, such as Kelulut honey, probiotics, and pinostrobin, can play a potential mitigating role through antioxidant activity. But these findings are still in the preclinical stage and have not yet been translated into clinical applications. Future research should focus on the development of environment-related exposure models, strategies to clearly distinguish between particle-specific effects and environmentally relevant exposure models, and the establishment of biomarker systems for human threat and risk assessment.