The effects of whole-language instruction: An update and a reappraisal

This article reports an update of a meta-analysis of the effects of whole language originally conducted by Stahl and Miller (1989). Using studies conducted since 1988, the present meta-analysis suggests that whole-language approaches still produce effects on achievement essentially similar to that of basal readers. However, relatively few studies were found that used achievement measures. Looking at these studies as a whole, there seems to be a shifting of goals from achievement to attitude toward reading. Whole-language approaches seem to be effective in improving children's attitudes toward reading. The effects of eclectic programs, which include the use of open-ended tasks and self-selection of literature as in whole-language approaches but also stress an achievement orientation and phonics instruction as in more traditional approaches, seem to be effective in improving both achievement and attitude.