Chapter 4: Infrastructure impacts and adaptation challenges

4.1 Adapting in an urban environment 4.2 Lessons learned from other metropolitan areas 4.3 Corporate and business climate change action planning 4.4 Conclusions and recommendations Creating an overall climate change adaptation strategy for urban infrastructure poses considerable conceptual and operational challenges. An understanding of the characteristics of a city's infrastructure that make it particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change is a critical foundation for understanding the severity of the impacts and the means for adaptation. Historical events that have compromised a city's infrastructure under conditions similar to those associated with climate change also provide information about what a city might expect in the way of consequences from a future of increased temperatures, precipitation, and sea level rise. This chapter explores the challenges to climate change adaptation in major urban infrastructure sectors with a focus on New York City, draws lessons from adaptation efforts under way in other large metropolitan regions, and discusses the role of the private sector in urban adaptation. The particular dimensions of infrastructure that are relevant to climate change primarily depend on location, exposure, and vulnerability, as well as the degree of protection against climatic forces. This section highlights some of the infrastructure most vulnerable to climate change in New York City as a means of illustrating the complexity of adapting in a dense, urban environment. As discussed in Chapter 3, New York City faces the following climate change hazards: Temperature: long-term changes in mean annual temperature and increases in the frequency, intensity, and duration of heat waves; Precipitation: long-term changes in mean annual precipitation and more frequent and intense precipitation events and drought; and Sea level rise and associated storm surge. New York City houses one of the densest infrastructures in the world. Because of its age and composition, some of this infrastructure and materials may not be able to withstand the projected strains and stresses from a changing climate. Rising temperatures may result in increased degradation of materials. Precipitation events of increased frequency, intensity, and duration may result in inland flooding that tests current drainage capacities. Rising sea levels may result in increased flooding that could degrade infrastructure materials from more frequent saltwater inundation and river flooding that can flood infrastructure not designed to withstand those conditions. Table 4.1 gives examples of infrastructure and assets that are likely to be affected by climate change. The provision of electricity can be roughly divided into production and distribution facilities, though many intermediate processes and facilities exist between these two services, such as transformers, area substations, switching stations, generators, and transmission towers. New York City is required to produce 80% of its electric power needs (in terms of forecasted peak events), though some pre-existing transmission systems providing external electricity that are dedicated to providing electricity for New York City can be included as part of the 80%.1 This condition presents a challenge to adaptation since on the one hand it promotes security and on the other hand it poses constraints on alternative ways of obtaining power from outside the city. Production facilities for electric power are concentrated in a relatively few locations relative to the customer base they serve. Presently, about two dozen power plants of varying sizes are operating in New York City (Fig. 4.1), and over a dozen more were proposed as of 2005. These facilities are owned and/or operated by a half-dozen entities. Traditionally power plants have required shoreline or close to shoreline locations for water intake structures and cooling water discharges; thus a number of the city's existing production facilities are located at lower elevations and potentially sensitive to flooding due to sea level rise. Locations of New York City power plants relative to 10-foot elevation contour.Sources: Compiled from power plant web sites and NOAA MESA NY Bight Atlas Monograph for historical records, K. Ascher, The Works (Penguin Press 2005), p. 98, and NYS DEC South Pier Improvement Project Gowanus Power Plan, April 3, 2008, http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/permits_ej_operations_pdf/gpublic2.pdf. http://www.uspowergen.com/projects/south-pier/. Dots indicate very approximate locations of 22 existing power plants. The base map indicating 10 foot sea level contours is from V. Gornitz of GISS. Transmission lines that service the city are also relatively concentrated, entering the city from relatively few directions and providing little flexibility should any one of these lines be compromised. The lines enter New York City primarily from Westchester to the north and secondarily from Long Island to the east and New Jersey to the west. Thus, any given disruption in one of these locations will have relatively widespread impacts. The distribution system serving New York City, distinct from transmission, is one of the densest in the world, consisting of approximately 90,000 miles (145,000 kilometers) of underground distribution lines and 55 distribution networks within the city, each of which can operate independently of the other.2 Energy infrastructure poses a number of challenges to adaptation. Most infrastructure in the city relies on the city's power grid for energy, thus if it fails the other infrastructures that are dependent on it fail. The facilities that produce and distribute energy have traditionally been located in low-lying areas and are difficult and expensive to relocate. In addition, many power plants need to be located near the water to accommodate fuel deliveries, the use of water for cooling and steam generation, and water discharges, making relocation to areas not susceptible to flooding virtually impossible. These facilities are also concentrated in a relatively few locations within the city increasing the impacts of a climate hazard occurring at one location. The electric power industry is subject to a variety of regulations which presents a challenge to incorporating any new demands, such as climate change information, into its portfolio. Limited resources and multiple demands on those resources present another challenge to meeting energy needs. This situation is not only specific to New York City but is also common to the energy sector in general, occurring in many other urban areas as well. The transportation sector comprises the facilities and services to move people and materials over and through land, water, and air. It encompasses many modes of transport, including personal vehicles traveling on surface roads and public and private transport via bus, rail, ferries, and airplanes. Given the extent of use of rail transit within New York City, this section focuses on rail transit for passengers to illustrate the complexities and challenges that the transportation sector in general will encounter in adapting to climate change. The rail transit system serving New York City is the largest in the United States. Seven local and regional transit systems serve the city; however, the city has little jurisdictional control over these systems (see Fig. 4.2 for major rail lines). First, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) manages three of the city's transit agencies: New York City Transit, Metro North and the Long Island Railroad. New York City Transit has 660 passenger miles of track (840 in total) and serves 1.5 billion passengers annually within the five boroughs (see Fig. 4.3 for station locations). Metro-North has 775 miles of track and services more than 80 million passengers annually running mainly to and from locations north of the city. The Long Island Railroad that runs to and from Long Island east of the city and has 594 miles of track and services 82 million passengers per year (MTA, 2008). Location and capacity constraints of New York City rail and subways.Source: City of New York, PlaNYC: New York, City of April p. Location and condition of New York City City of New York, PlaNYC: New York, City of April p. the Authority of NY and manages the Authority system which has miles of track and services million passengers per year between locations within relatively close to the 2008). Transit, a system by a runs into New Jersey and New York City, has miles of track and services million passengers per year Transit, is also another of rail services, providing regional service through New York exist as well for transport via of these systems passengers and facilities that in the of changes for adaptation. The and of the city's transit the that many of the facilities are located underground and/or in or river the and considerable that be to or to vulnerable of the and the need to the system operational are for climate change adaptation. The system has condition and capacity which to the climate change 4.2 and The transit sector and have multiple and that challenges to adaptation. The city's rail systems are vulnerable to climate change by of elevations which are susceptible to flooding from increased precipitation and sea level rise. many rail in New York City are at is a in sea These locations are well for the New York which will in particularly vulnerable areas of and in and and New York City Transit are as as and as as sea level in In to the the and of public and facilities, and can a role in are also very and the of or to flooding adaptation of precipitation of duration gives an of flooding of the rail system can flooding from the storm discussed in Chapter in a near of the the The also required the of of from and the or of track track transformers, and electric have transit in New York City over the (MTA, the use of large and the such as these to to flooding from climate change in the future The flexibility of transit to from one system to another is an adaptation An adaptation for rail transit facilities is the extent to which the of transit networks of rail lines that are not with other in relatively little flexibility for to another rail if any one area of the is to lines is an under such conditions. of the New York City Transit and systems are able to on location, which the in systems following the on the and to climate change adaptation to the water and sectors a and of The water sector comprises an system of water and consisting of water and surface water and facilities for water and transmission, and distribution that water from to infrastructure to the of water such as the provision of water, transport and power generation, and and water that is not is to The of water infrastructure on the and of the and the water has to be The New York City water system about billion a from a that to miles from City The and provide of this water, with the This to the city through an consisting of and distribution lines with and other the for are and an in the two an and a in the and the three and an in the p. from the in the and to two and The of a plant for the is under way in the the city's water distribution system as in 4.4 are two water and over miles of water distribution The city is planning to into its water distribution system and also the for system through a variety of such as the of a water 3, which is occurring in New York City water distribution system and water City of New York, PlaNYC: New York, City of April p. plants a challenge for since they are by facilities located on the with to accommodate water, from sea levels or intense more ways of and provide an for the These need and into the city's and have multiple including private The and distribution system of miles of stations, and water control plants The by of the way they are to operate with to are primarily located the city's the elevations sea level the plants are designed to one and a capacity and can about two that for water is through the city's and plants are in Locations of and in the City of New York, PlaNYC: New York, City of April p. is under the of public and private in the City of New York, the challenges to the of climate change adaptation The New York City of or of of per from and in Most of the that are not are outside of the city for and/or than on sites within the city. In the New York City has for this but these have been sector a large role in facilities in low-lying areas including are also subject to flooding that could result in increased of water by sea level these facilities could water since many of are located near and on that not into the current climate facilities at the in Fig. and As in Table station can be and can be storm and Location of from of p. The of the city's infrastructure and the variety and of networks and facilities is well by the This sector is also dependent on other particularly electric power as discussed in the section on in to The sector a of services and facilities, including and to the of its and services are as The means the transmission, between or by the of information of the change in the or of the information as and The means other than customer by a to provide services, and to such The means the of for a to the or to such of as to be to the of the facilities systems such as and and many of facilities for the intermediate and transmission, and of and of these is potentially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The New York City infrastructure of a of structures to and consisting of switching stations, and many more serve New York City including and many is vulnerable to climate for facilities such as and associated with can can in and from to if sea level and as in an is the of due to capacity from impacts that are more These sensitive to flooding and Given the degree of of the extent and of the city's are to such and any given climate change adaptation is one for this is a and to of an change if the and/or of any change. in the of energy such an could electricity and power be given an change in electricity capacity due to and can use such in climate change impacts and adaptation is an way of are associated with climatic and the of adaptation. will not only change with in climatic but the will also to the degree of in the climate are on or alternative conditions to the degree to which changes in the of climatic conditions will change impacts on of the infrastructure sectors are dependent on and within one another in in the of of infrastructure services is a critical in climate change impacts and adaptation since they can the consequences of a of a given of and infrastructure between two infrastructures through which the of each infrastructure or is to the of the two infrastructures are each is dependent on the in be a situation one infrastructure on but the is not and can be or by or information or In these it is to system or not only between infrastructures but within as well. The of these is to the to for that might one infrastructure and infrastructures exist that will make an in any one an in another and for New York City are given the complexity and of the city. Transportation facilities depend on electric power to operate electric rail and for and rail Transit rail, and is an electricity The and and have been a water in the of these facilities, and many of these have been The flooding from water is to what might be flooding about by increased and sea level rise associated with climate change. systems and electric power plant and distribution that depend on can and have systems and can in the electric which they to power and in on transportation for the of and or plants on electric power and a large of water in in with climate change impacts is the in power by plants in power facilities in are of water for cooling and steam electric power to be the sector which most other sectors information are in given the increasing on these for the and control of infrastructure and Power plants on to and control and over a with multiple on for however, on electricity to and lines can as lines are one to the however, they are also vulnerable in and in on electric power to within a given infrastructure sector the of power plants and power transmission and distribution networks one one system or of facilities is can or the required the on the which two substations, able to to in areas to the area to electricity at on a are to this adaptation however, since on electric power and operating including are at the plant electric power in New York City, these are by the New York Energy and the New York of in the water in of water is common water or at the facilities are in to such the of New York City in a the to water with New This is an of than In to adaptation exist the and of these have to be The of large urban presents challenges to climate change adaptation. have been for of the and of New York City, by of an to adaptation to flooding is storm to of such adaptation it is that adaptation that are in The needs to be a understanding of the that future for any given urban dimensions are and long-term infrastructure adaptation for New York City be designed to against water which will in as sea level also through increasing of The of future and from and might be by vulnerable to the large for and a section and river from New York to and water conceptual of storm should be as to the on to with the increasing of storm in New York City and the in the of climate change. is that those need to be in to the of which and very as for as alternative to adaptation are New York could against some levels of with a of local as flood and storm information and and for at the not against the inland from and that in the New York City New York City and other large have a in the few to the by climate change. have varying levels of and of climate change adaptation and These are in some of climate and In climate action the and of from city to city. adaptation is not in many of these the provide lessons and for adaptation. In it is this of that the and challenges that urban areas in adapting to climate change. this climate a of and is a of three large metropolitan area climate change and which were to provide examples of this of The are from three major urban and The focus of each as a of specific city and degree of efforts within level and adaptation efforts are in climate action they and have climate action and more specific adaptation efforts which is an of The following are not to be but to illustrate the and the and of by the action energy and This highlights the of in the city to make local changes with a large climate action to at the to to climate This focuses on the need for flexibility with and is a and in these and adaptation on to events as through the of impacts. This focuses on to specific impacts to large of the is a of the efforts by and to climate change and to for these The following some of the for each of the The City of has its as from increased temperatures, increased number of heat and increased these impacts from and as well as from the of to at an strategy of five each to climate adaptation to energy use in and energy to and energy transportation a variety of transportation modes and and and and and for the of climate change. of climate change impacts by of the impacts on city and including operational and This to action and provide for future planning and of and adaptation to climate These efforts are designed to impacts and and water overall of and to be to overall an with to of these of are in Table is the largest regional in the United and is a in and planning for climate change into its The the and for an to and to to The on a of and The and adaptation to the of it is to the to the for adaptation as these two are in The is on a focus in the areas and transportation energy, and energy and and materials. is not as to the impacts of climate change on the some of sea level rise in as well as increased The adaptation of the focuses on regional relative to a number of and focuses on adaptation in the in and use in public and water water and and and and and designed to be as on an annual and the with and recommendations for This is a of the of are in Table is an adaptation in part due to its heat in and flooding of though efforts to these efforts have been for the large to it is to that roughly of is at for and this vulnerability, is by a and system of flood and with the one of that the of climate change and highlights the need for frequent and The is on and The climate in is to and in and and than in the increased and of events precipitation, to increased flooding and focuses on and with on the the and city The adaptation strategy is from the of existing and the focus is the most The has three at its and surface water flood and infrastructure from for water within the and to temperatures by urban heat and heat are given for the the and city of impacts such as the and those with increased on and and increased of in per rise in impacts are also such as impacts on in and increased on people outside in or facilities, and on in are also on service such as or other events that from many facilities located in flood and and facilities that are not designed to accommodate increased heat of are in Table The City of New York has a role in the impacts of climate change on its and business the and included in This focus and understanding of will New York City to and needs in the of climate the of the have been in climate not will in the in that business to climate change on location, business of and This means that what might have to one is of to another if and are not in of the current many are primarily on the with the to and most and the of climate change is as a that not have on and similar events can be of critical and these are in most under the of business and on the and level of of but the is to business in the of any or These are to as of can and most have in to through the and as as change is by as part of planning and if at The and of climate changes can enter into of long-term and to are also about such as to flooding and that but the of change can be with adaptation. climate changes may a new or of the increasing of these are to more and climate in and It is that this will to and more in are that to the challenges in this number of similar adaptation to of infrastructure and thus can produce multiple infrastructures at the These adaptation to the of water from the of more infrastructure materials to the and operational of these adaptation as as such as the use of to heat which also to energy use and thus recommendations to and adaptation are many of which are in in New York a understanding what has to the situation (in the what is it and the of of climate change impacts on and of the including to and capacity in and This means that infrastructure and an to and to changing and a planning that and and adaptation by a of that into or of are it is to flexibility into adaptation in an This means that as a general the business for the proposed adaptation should be by an of the and with an of the an of required and impacts that may be in the to infrastructure of other and required change to make the change to these dimensions in planning can a or to or to or required to critical are of to changes in and and infrastructures can of the of climate changes on These two are a critical part of the infrastructure adaptation and should be into need to be in a It is this that highlights to what to be very or that and to these and can be by or should the for of changes that and to make a and with other An of a is that this a level of that not have and metropolitan areas have also in climate change adaptation that a is to widespread This means that infrastructures of the future should be in a way that and adaptation. The also the of adaptation planning on and they for an and/or and and These provide a planning which can and a of adaptation to this highlights the of a between in to the of adaptation in a of some of the to the adaptation infrastructure and city of the of the city is a of and an annual of the in to make new and provide The is from this adaptation should not be but should be from the of In a of efforts is that are infrastructure and specific as well as at the The is that these efforts be and with many and entities.