The Spread of English and the Question of Englishes: Linguistic Imperialism, Appropriation, and World Englishes

The global spread of English is a contested phenomenon deeply entangled with the histories of colonialism, globalisation, and Western imperialism. This article examines the historical expansion of English through three diasporic movements aligned with Kachru’s (1992) concentric circle model, before engaging critically with Phillipson’s (1992) theory of linguistic imperialism and its continued resonance in contemporary ELT contexts. Drawing on the scholarly frameworks of Kumaravadivelu (2006), Crystal (2003), Cutting (2015), and Troudi (2009, 2017), the article explores how the ideological underpinnings of Western fundamentalism have legitimised English dominance and contributed to the marginalisation of other languages and cultures. It further examines how the appropriation of English by non-native communities has produced New Englishes, challenging assumptions of native speaker ownership and destabilising the notion of a singular, legitimate standard. The article concludes with a contextual analysis drawn from four years of English language teaching in Saudi Arabia, illustrating how English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) policy manifests self-marginalisation and unequal bilingualism. The article argues for a more ethical and pluralistic approach to English language teaching that honours linguistic diversity, cultural sovereignty, and mutual intelligibility as core pedagogical values.