Understanding the barriers affecting women's mobility in the first- and last-mile stretches in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review

Globally, women encounter physical and social barriers that challenge their mobility. This review explores the barriers affecting women's mobility, in the first- and last-mile stretches, in low- and middle-income countries and their consequences on accessibility, availability, affordability, and acceptability of public transport. This review includes 42 studies on mobility, accessibility, safety, travel patterns, and gendered transport, employing mixed, quantitative, and qualitative methods. The barriers observed in these studies are primarily related to 1) public transport, 2) non-motorized transport, 3) safety, 4) gendered norms, 5) urban form, and 6) policies. The most common concerns for women are the lack of adequate, reliable, inclusive, safe, and integrated public transport, poor pedestrian infrastructure, and unsafe environments. These, coupled with gendered norms, restrict mobility and access to essential services and opportunities for women, especially if traveling with children and luggage, as well as for older adults and persons with disabilities. This is one of the first reviews focusing on barriers affecting women's mobility. It advocates for more contextualized evidence-based studies on first- and last-mile connectivity from more geographic locations, integrated feeder and main transport lines, and operationalizing and monitoring policies and regulations. • Undesirable macro- and micro-environments of transport hinder women's mobility. • Gendered norms and unsafe conditions prompt women to travel less resulting in alienation and exclusion from public spaces. • Need for more contextualized evidence-based studies on first- and last-mile connectivity.