• Hybrid GA–PSO optimisation enhances energy harvesting efficiency and durability of FPM systems. • Multilayer biodegradable piezoelectric structures outperform monolayer designs under cyclic mechanical loading. • Integration of lifecycle sustainability index links material performance with environmental impact metrics. • Bio-waste-derived materials enable circular energy systems supporting sustainable manufacturing and resource efficiency. • Low-frequency energy harvesting demonstrates suitability for wearable, IoT, and self-powered sensing applications.
Kolawole et al. (Fri,) studied this question.