Synergies and trade-offs between soil functions differ with land-use intensity

The effect of soil management and the socio-economic system on soil function supply has been extensively studied. In contrast, the less explored question of how management intensity influences synergies and trade-offs between functions – i.e. the competition between function supplies – is addressed here. Using a large soil dataset spanning 28 European countries, we estimate five soil functions and calculate co-occurrence relationships, both positive and negative, between these functions. We then examine how competition between functions varies with management intensity, using a map of land system archetypes. Our findings reveal that competition between functions varies with land-use intensity but can also differ spatially within a single intensity class. For example, we identified instances of conflicting synergies and trade-offs within one class. We also found a strong positive relationship between primary productivity and nutrient cycling in more intensively managed land, whereas there was a trade-off between water regulation and primary productivity in less intensively managed lands. These findings support future regional land-use policies focused on soil health. However, we emphasize that beyond individual soil function supply, it is necessary to consider soil multifunctionality and understand how interactions between function supplies change in response to both environmental and socio-economic factors. • Five soil functions assessed for Europe. • The competing supply between functions is estimated. • We found synergies and trade-offs between soil function supply across Europe. • Synergies and trade-offs between functions vary with land use intensity. • Necessity to move beyond assessment of individual soil functions supply.