Anti-TLR2 antibody triggers oxidative phosphorylation in microglia and increases phagocytosis of β-amyloid

BACKGROUND: Microglia are multifunctional cells that are primarily neuroprotective and a deficit in their functional integrity is likely to be a contributory factor in the deteriorating neuronal function that occurs with age and neurodegeneration. One aspect of microglial dysfunction is reduced phagocytosis, and this is believed to contribute to the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, improving phagocytosis should be beneficial in limiting the amyloidosis that characterises AD. METHODS: Here, we investigated whether an antibody that targets toll-like receptor (TLR)2 might attenuate the inflammatory and metabolic changes induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and amyloid-β. The impact on phagocytosis was assessed by immunohistochemistry. We evaluated the metabolic changes with the SeaHorse Extracellular Flux Analyser and studied the expression of key enzymes driving glycolysis by western blotting. For all experiments, statistical significance was determined by unpaired Student's t test and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS: We have reported that, when exposed to an inflammatory stimulus, microglia switch their metabolism towards the metabolically- inefficient glycolysis; this potentially impacts on metabolically demanding functions like phagocytosis. Anti-TLR2 antibody increased phagocytosis of Aβ in LPS + Aβ-stimulated microglia and this was linked with the ability of the antibody to attenuate the LPS + Aβ-triggered inflammasome activation. LPS + Aβ increased glycolysis in microglia and increased the expression of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-biphosphatase (PFKFB)3, an enzyme that plays a key role in driving glycolysis; these effects were inhibited when cells were incubated with the anti-TLR2 antibody. The data also show that antibody treatment increased oxidative metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, microglia with an inflammatory phenotype, specifically cells in which the inflammasome is activated, are glycolytic; this may compromise the metabolic efficiency of microglia and thereby provide an explanation for the reduced phagocytic function of the cells. We propose that, by restoring oxidative metabolism and reducing inflammasome activation in microglia, phagocytic function is also restored.