Geographic and geomorphologic context of Caspian Sea level fluctuations over the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

This article aims at presenting water level changes within the Caspian Sea watershed since the Last Glacial Maximum, with some chronological references to Late Pleistocene highstands and lowstands. The drivers of water level changes may be related to a climatic context, or other triggering factors. After introducing the physical geography of the Caspian Sea, (submarine basins and sills, geological structure, surrounding reliefs), the climate components connected to changes in water level are presented. Caspian Sea level changes are discussed separately for the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, as different time periods require different methods, and because Caspian Sea levels respond to a wide range of different drivers. For this purpose, based on an updated synthesis of publications, and after a brief review of methodological limitations, a discussion of the role of climate change versus other factors is provided. The other factors comprise insolation, changes in the extension of the drainage area of the Caspian Sea, especially north up to the Arctic sphere and to the Tien-Shan-Pamir, the wide-ranging latitudes of the regions concerned, as well as local factors related to relief and (past or present) river connections, tectonics, water mass dynamics and other geographical and geomorphological specificities of the watershed.