What are the programme level costs and benefits of implementing nature-based solutions for climate change mitigation and adaptation in smallholder agricultural systems? A rapid evidence assessment

Agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, but at the same time, smallholder farmers especially are highly vulnerable to climate impacts. Nature-based solutions (NBS) offer a promising approach to address these challenges by integrating climate change mitigation, adaptation, and biodiversity conservation within agricultural practices. This review synthesizes empirical evidence on the effectiveness of NBS in smallholder farming systems across low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). It identifies key benefits, costs, and scalability of various NBS strategies, with a focus on programme level outcomes.