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, and energy use of 9-37 MJ. Over 95 % of these impacts are driven by irrigation, fertilizers, and weed and pest management. Significant differences between treatments underscore the role of crop-specific farming practices. Finger-weeding consistently lowered environmental impact across most conditions, whereas cultivation and flaming generally resulted in moderate to high impacts regardless of fertilizer level. Hand-weeding had the lowest environmental impact but was the most labor-intensive approach. The untreated control consistently led to the highest environmental burdens, reinforcing the necessity of effective weed management. By identifying key environmental hotspots, this study provides a foundation for optimizing weed control and fertilization strategies, integrating best farming practices, and informing policies to improve the sustainability and resilience of organic cropping systems in Mediterranean agriculture.
Shulner et al. (Mon,) studied this question.