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A substantial difference in average earnings between men and women employed full-time is documented for each of nine industrial nations, and several hypothesized explanations for the earnings gap are explored: a human capital hypothesis-women earn less because they have less education and experience; a dual career hypothesis-women earn less because they adjust their work behavior to meet the demands of family obligations; and an occupational segregation hypothesis-women earn less because they are concentrated in lowlevel jobs. None of these hypotheses receives much support in any country, leaving open the possibility that the earnings differences are due to deeply entrenched institutional arrangements that limit women's opportunities and achievements.
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Treiman et al. (1983) studied this question.
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