Perspective on recent developments and challenges in regulatory and systems genomics

: Predicting how genetic variation affects phenotypic outcomes at the organismal, cellular, and molecular levels requires deciphering the cis-regulatory code, the sequence rules by which non-coding regions regulate genes. In this perspective, we discuss recent computational progress and challenges toward solving this fundamental problem. We describe how cis-regulatory elements are mapped with various genomics assays and how studies of the 3D chromatin organization could help identifying long-range regulatory effects. We discuss how the cis-regulatory sequence rules can be learned and interpreted with sequence-to-function neural networks, with the goal of identifying genetic variants in human disease. We also describe current methods for mapping gene regulatory networks to describe biological processes. We point out current gaps in knowledge along with technical limitations and benchmarking challenges of computational methods. Finally, we discuss newly emerging technologies, such as spatial transcriptomics, and outline strategies for creating a more general model of the cis-regulatory code that is more broadly applicable across cell types and individuals.