Lateral Prefrontal Theta Oscillations Reflect Proactive Cognitive Control Impairment in Males With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Figures

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  Figure 1. Behavioral results. (A) Task scheme. (B) Accuracy rate for Nogo trials separated by the number of preceding Go trials. (C) Reaction time (RT) for Go trials separated by the number of preceding Go trials. (B,C) Red color represents typically developing (TD) children, and black indicates Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) children. Dotted lines represent linear regression fitting. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.

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  Figure 2. Event-related potential (ERP) results. (A) Frontal ERP elicited by Nogo stimuli separated by the number of preceding Go trials in TD children. The black box shows the significant differences between conditions [Kruskal–Wallis and Cluster-based Permutation (CBP) test, p < 0.01]. (B) Frontal ERP elicited by Nogo stimuli separated by the number of preceding Go trials in ADHD children. The gray box represents the P3a, where significant differences were found for the TD group, but not for the ADHD children (Kruskal–Wallis, p > 0.05, uncorrected). (A,B) Color in the scalp plot represents the standard deviation between conditions. In the cortex surface (source space), the Z-value of the difference among conditions is plotted. (C) Box plot of the spearman rho value of the correlation between P3a peak (FCz electrode) and the number of preceding Go stimuli per subject, separated by group. ***p < 0.001, n.s. = p > 0.05.

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  Figure 3. Time-frequency results. (A) Time-frequency charts for Nogo stimuli in Left Parietal (left panels) and frontal electrodes (right panels), for TD children (upper panels), children with ADHD (middles panels) and the differences between both groups (Diff: ADHD—TD; lower panels). (B) Theta oscillatory activity (4–8 Hz) between 150 and 400 ms post stimuli presentation in both scalp (mean of beta estimated and p-values) and source levels for TD children as indicated in (A). (C) Statistical differences between TD and ADHD children in the Beta oscillatory activity as indicated in (A; 20–30 Hz, 50–250 ms). (D) Statistical differences between TD and ADHD children in the Theta oscillatory activity as indicated in (A). (A–C) Color represents the mean across subjects of the normalize beta estimated (beat/standard error of the mean) of the individual correlation between the power of the oscillatory brain activity and the sequences of Go stadium that precede the Nogo stimulus. The clusters with significant effects are highlighted (p < 0.01 cluster-corrected). (C,D) Color represents the p-values of the differences between groups. (B–D) For source levels, color represents the p-values at a…

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  Figure 4. Theta activity in the left Lateral PFC (lPFC). (A) Model used in Time-frequency analysis. The color indicates the differences between the corresponding regressors between groups (Blue ADHD>TD and Red TD>ADHD, p < 0.01 uncorrected). (B) Mean of the power of the lPFC (dorsolateral PFC from Neurosynth) ROI for Nogo stimuli related to Go stimuli separated per sequence (illustrative propose). Error bars represent standard error of the mean.