Early Research on Self-Efficacy: What we Already Know Without Knowing we Knew

The term “self-efficacy” was introduced by Bandura in 1977. However, expectancy for success in achievement situations, which was investigated extensively prior to 1977, is operationally equivalent to self-efficacy. Studies of expectancy for success reveal that self-efficacy is affected by performance feedback, but that the debilitating effect of failure on self-efficacy is greater than the facilitating effect of success. Experience at a task stabilizes self-efficacy, thereby decreasing the effects of feedback. Self-efficacy is more resistant to extinction following continuous reinforcement than following intermittent reinforcement. Besides perceived ability, self-efficacy ratings are affected by perceived task difficulty and locus of control. Self-efficacy judgments for one task generalize to other tasks, leading to individual differences in generalized self-efficacy. There are conflicting data about the effects of reinforcement value (outcome expectancies) on self-efficacy. Self-efficacy ratings predict persistence at a task, future performance levels, choice of contingent over noncontingent rewards, and alcohol use and abuse. Low self-efficacy elicits fear only to the extent that it is associated with aversive outcomes.