Witkin's field dependence and Kirton's adaption-innovation theories are compared and a theoretical overlap of concepts is advanced. This is confirmed by field study despite the confounding elements of spatial ability and extraversion in the former theory for male responses. Women's scores on the Embedded Figures Test differ from those of males, and this finding continues to constitute a difficulty for Witkin's theory and use of his measure.
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M. J. Kirton (1978) studied this question.