Apical skeletons of sea urchins (Echinodermata: Echinoidea): two methods for inferring mode of larval development

Recent data from mollusks suggest that mode of larval development may have important consequences for rates of speciation and extinction of marine organisms. The present study examines two methods that may be used to infer mode of development in the tests of fossil and Recent echinoids: genital pore size and crystallographic patterns of apical plates. Extant species with known modes of development were examined, and the following hypotheses were tested. 1) Species that produce large eggs and have nonfeeding larval development have larger genital pores than species that produce small eggs and have feeding larval development. 2) Orientations of crystallographic axes ( c -axes) of genital and ocular plates differ in species with differing modes of development and can be used to infer mode of development. Genital pore size was found to be strongly dependent on body size within a species. For some taxa, pairwise interspecific comparisons of the relationships between genital pore size and body size support the hypothesis of larger genital pores for species with nonfeeding larval development. However, in multiple comparisons of linear regressions, species with nonfeeding larval development always overlapped other species with feeding larval development. An examination of the allometry of genital pore growth showed some species with nonfeeding larval development differed from those with feeding larval development; other species with differing modes of development could not be distinguished on the basis of allometric growth parameters. Orientations of c -axes of genital plates were found to be accurate indicators of mode of development, but orientations of c -axes of ocular plates were not. Among regular echinoids, 71 of 72 species supported the hypothesis that orientation of c -axes of genital plates is indicative of mode of development. Among 19 spatangoid echinoids studied, orientations of c -axes of genital plates generally allowed separation of species with differing modes of development. This method cannot be used to infer modes of development in taxa with reduced numbers of genital plates such as some spatangoids, some cassiduloids, and all clypeasteroids. Taxonomic differences in c -axis orientations require that inferences be made from comparisons between species within families.