Ironies of automation and their implications for public service automation

Automation of public service provision has gained renewed attention as emerging technologies are said to enable automation of tasks that were previously seen as requiring human involvement. However, the merits of these automation technologies are often exaggerated. More knowledge is needed on public service automation, and much can be learned from adjacent research fields studying human-automation interaction. To lead by example, this work applies Bainbridge's (1983) concept of ironies of automation . The purpose is to (1) present ironies of automation, (2) explicate how these ironies can come into play when implementing automated systems in the public service context, and (3) outline implications that follow for public service automation. This is achieved by relating ironies of automation to contemporary studies on Robotic Process Automation (RPA) developments in Swedish local government. The analysis results in five ironies and a set of implications for public service automation. The ironies and implications for public service automation direct attention to key challenges that must be acknowledged in future automation implementations and show that further investigations and theoretical developments are needed on e.g., problems introduced by automation; tasks, roles, and responsibilities that follow on automation; how to design the interface between humans and automated systems in a way that facilitates monitoring, take-over, and maintenance; and, tools and methods for assessing the impact and quality of automated systems. This paper thus provides a foundation for future empirical investigations and further theoretical development on public service automation. • A more nuanced understanding of public service automation is needed. • Automation can lead to the opposite of what is expected, here called ironies of automation. • Ironies are presented and illustrated using empirical examples of RPA use in Swedish municipalities. • The analysis directs attention to key challenges that must be acknowledged in future public service automation. • This paper provides a foundation for theoretical development and empirical investigations of automation.