Competence, Contingency, and the Development of Perceived Control

In an effort to learn how perceived internal control changes with age, 33 developmental studies using 12 different locus of control (LOC) scales are surveyed. A few studies show developmental declines in perceived control, about half show consistent developmental increases, and about half show mixed results or no significant developmental differences. A critical examination of the LOC scales reveals that some developmental findings may be artifacts of scale characteristics, and that others may reflect developmental effects on constructs other than perceived control. Most importantly, the scales and the LOC literature fail to distinguish clearly betwen two dimensions of perceived control that may show quite different patterns of developmental change. These dimensions are perceived contingency of outcomes and perceived competence of self; combined, they form a simple but potentially powerful conceptual framework for theory and research on the development of perceived control. The explanatory power of this framework is briefly illustrated, relevant evidence is surveyed, and embryonic proposals are advanced for the study of perceived contingency and competence independently and in interaction.