Analysis of small leisure boating safety in Spain: a case of Basque Country

The digitalization of Global Supply Chains (GSCs) through Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has improved port efficiency, traceability, and resilience. However, it has also introduced new vulnerabilities (digital failures and cyberattacks) that can propagate globally through cascading effects. Around 80% of global trade is transported by sea (Trade, 2025). Disruptions at ports or shipping lines can cause systemic repercussions, such as the NotPetya attack on Maersk in 2017, which resulted in losses of over $300 million (A.P. Moller-Maersk, 2017) or the ransomware attack that affected the Port of Nagoya in 2023 (Sangfor Technologies, 2023). This research analyzes how ICT disruptions affect functional areas of the maritime sector, including port resource planning, fleet and terminal capacity, maritime security, and material and information flows. It proposes an evidence-based conceptual framework to help maritime companies manage digital vulnerabilities and strengthen resilience in global logistics. Small leisure boating (under 6 meters in length) has expanded steadily over the last decade in Spain, driven by growing social interest and rapid technological change in small craft and onboard equipment. In parallel, the governance of nautical training and certification has progressively decentralised following the transfer of competencies to Autonomous Communities. This study focuses on the Basque Country and examines the perceptions of candidates for the entry-level “Licencia de Navegación”, which Spanish law (Royal Decree 875/2014) defines as a document issued under the responsibility of sailing and powerboating federations and approved nautical schools. Because this licence is commonly marketed as “no exam” and can be obtained after 2 hours of theory and 4 hours of onboard practice, this study assesses whether this training is sufficient for safe leisure navigation and identifies how training and regulatory design could be updated to reduce avoidable incidents. A mixed-methods design approach is adopted through (i) a survey administered to 461 candidates for the Licencia de Navegación in the Basque Country (2023–2025) and (ii) incident data filtered to identify recreational craft cases from 2016 to 2024 within the Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre, Bilbao (MRCC Bilbao) area and within the licence’s legal operating limits (SASEMAR). Thus, descriptive statistics are used to quantify the share of leisure-boat incidents in annual assistance services and to characterise the distribution of incident types. Second, a questionnaire assesses candidates’ perceptions, prior knowledge of the licence’s privileges and limitations, perceived training quality, and information-seeking behaviour for safety-critical decisions, especially meteorological sources. Survey results are stratified by demographic groups. Incident records confirm that leisure craft account for a notable share of Search and Rescue (SAR) interventions in the MRCC Bilbao area, with recurrent patterns consistent with the competence gaps identified in the survey. Preliminary findings indicate widespread unawareness of what the licence allows and restricts (“what can and cannot be done”), despite this being central for safe decision-making and not explicitly addressed in the current course syllabus. Notably, 81% of candidates answered incorrectly when asked about the maximum distance from a harbour or sheltered beach at which the licence permits navigation. Responses also reveal systematic differences in how candidates obtain safety-critical information: a non-negligible share relies primarily on weather data accessed via a smartphone rather than on official meteorological services (cf. Martínez de Osés, 2006), suggesting gaps in weather-risk perception and decision-making. As far is known, this is one of the first empirical studies that directly measures candidate perceptions and knowledge gaps for Spain’s most widely held recreational boating certificate. By linking training practices with user perceptions and local SAR demand patterns, the study supports: (a) targeted updates to entry-level curricula, including explicit coverage of legal operating limits, structured pre-departure checks, basic craft reliability (maintenance and failure prevention), fuel-range planning, and stronger meteorological literacy drawing on established nautical meteorology competences (Martínez de Osés & Ventura Jariod, 2021); and (b) the introduction of structured refresher/continuing education mechanisms for holders of older qualifications who may not have been trained on newer technologies and procedures. The findings also contribute to the broader European discussion on harmonising minimum-competency standards for entry-level recreational certificates.