There is a range of issues on which we and our critics-Myra Marx Ferree and Bandana Purkayastha, and Dana M. Britton and Christine L. Williams-agree: Women face systematic obstacles to promotions in managerial hierarchies; some of these obstacles take the form of direct discrimination in promotion decisions, whereas others are the result of forms of gender oppression built into institutional structures and social environments; obstacles to managerial promotions are not the only form of disadvantage women face within labor markets-they also face disadvantage with respect to occupational choice, earnings, and prestige-and some of the disadvantages may be more intense at higher levels of the relevant dimension; although it may be difficult to disentangle occupational sex segregation from obstacles to vertical promotions within hierarchies, these are not identical phenomena and both affect the work lives of women. Where we disagree, principally, is on three matters:
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Wright et al. (2000) studied this question.
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