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Rapid urbanization in Gulf cities has driven significant land cover changes, influencing outdoor thermal comfort and land surface temperatures (LST). This study investigates land cover dynamics from 1998 to 2023 across six cities – Doha, Dubai, Kuwait City, Manama, Muscat, and Riyadh – using Landsat imagery to assess LST, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and approximated wet-bulb globe temperature (AWGBT). Results reveal an increase in urban areas, with Manama and Kuwait City experiencing the largest expansions (47.50% and 47.02%). Vegetation patterns varied, with cities like Dubai and Riyadh showing consistent increases, while Doha stagnated from 2013 to 2023. LST ranged from 42°C to 55°C, with desert areas showing the highest temperatures. Built-up areas had LST comparable to desert land, highlighting a reverse urban heat island effect. Dubai’s LST decreased between 2013 and 2023 due to successful green initiatives, contrasting with rising temperatures in other cities. The mean LST difference between the desert and urban areas was 2.5°C, and vegetation displayed a cooling effect, with a 3.5°C difference between vegetated and desert areas. Thermal comfort maps aligned with LST data, showing increasing heat stress, particularly in Doha and Kuwait City, while Dubai maintained stable comfort levels. This study underscores the critical role of vegetation and sustainable urban planning in mitigating heat stress and enhancing outdoor thermal comfort across Gulf cities.
Patel et al. (Thu,) studied this question.