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Polymeric membranes serve as vital separation materials in diverse energy and environmental applications. A comprehensive understanding of three-dimensional (3D) structures of membranes is critical to performance evaluation and future design. Such quantitative 3D structural information is beyond the limit of most employed conventional two-dimentional characterization techniques such as scanning electron microscopy. In this review, we summarize eight types of 3D reconstruction-characterization techniques for membrane materials. Originated from life and materials science, these techniques have been optimized to reveal the 3D structures of membrane materials in the separation field. We systematically introduce the theories of each technique, summarize the sample preparation procedures developed for membrane materials, and demonstrate step-by-step data processing, including 3D model reconstruction and subsequent characterization. Representative case studies are introduced to show the progress of this field and how technical challenges have been overcome over the years. In the end, we share our perspectives and believe that this review can serve as a useful reference for 3D reconstruction-characterization techniques developed for membrane materials.
Li et al. (Thu,) studied this question.