Moscow, Beijing, and the Crescent: Russian and Chinese religious soft power in the Middle East

The expanding presence and interests of both Russia and China as well as the shift from American unipolarity to greater multipolarity has rightfully been noted as one of the most transformative regional developments in the contemporary Middle East. Both Moscow and Beijing have asserted themselves as prominent external powers in the region, especially as the United States continues to reassess its interests and commanding presence in the Middle East. Russia and China have dramatically increased their respective diplomatic, economic, and military engagement in the region, particularly following the 2011 Arab uprisings. However, often overlooked is the growing religious engagement of both Moscow and Beijing in the region. This analysis seeks to bridge this gap by examining Russia's and China's efforts to construct their own tools of religious soft power within the Middle East, as well as the central role of several regional powers to these efforts.