The Case for Using both Latent and Manifest Variables to Investigate Management-by-Exception

The current study examines the leadership behavior of Management-by-Exception by using quantitative and qualitative methods. By distinguishing between manifest (observable) and latent (unobservable) variables, the study enables the concept of Management-by-Exception to be clarified. A sample 480 senior police officers was used. The results support the notion that Management-by-Exception should be considered as a single latent variable. Qualitative analysis identified three manifest variables that are observable indicators of Management-of-Exception. Implications for investigating leadership using both quantitative and qualitative research methods are discussed.