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The emergence of 4D printing has become a pivotal tool to produce complex structures in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This chapter provides a concise overview of the current state of the field and its immense potential to better understand the involved technologies to build sophisticated 4D-printed structures. These structures have the capability to sense and respond to a diverse range of stimuli, which include changes in temperature, humidity, or electricity/magnetics. First, we describe 4D printing technologies, which include extrusion-based inkjet printing, and light-based and droplet-based methods including selective laser sintering (SLS). Several types of biomaterials for 4D printing, which can undergo structural changes in various external stimuli over time were also presented. These structures hold the promise of revolutionizing fields that require adaptable and intelligent materials. Moreover, biomedical applications of 4D-printed smart structures were highlighted, spanning a wide spectrum of intended applications from drug delivery to regenerative medicine. Finally, we address a number of challenges associated with current technologies, touching upon ethical and regulatory aspects of the technologies, along with the need for standardized protocols in both in vitro as well as in vivo testing of 4D-printed structures, which are crucial steps toward eventual clinical realization.
Kim et al. (Sun,) studied this question.