Oestrogens and lower urinary tract dysfunction chronicling a lifetime of research

The urogenital tract is sensitive to the effect of oestrogen and progesterone throughout adult life. Epidemiological studies have implicated oestrogen deficiency in the aetiology of lower urinary tract symptoms and Genitourinary Symptoms of the Menopause (GSM) occurring following the menopause. The role of systemic and local oestrogen replacement therapy in the management of postmenopausal lower urinary tract symptoms remains controversial although the use of vaginal oestrogens in the management of women complaining of lower urinary tract symptoms and GSM is now well established. This aim of this paper is to review the history of post-menopausal hormonal therapy in the management of postmenopausal urinary incontinence, recurrent lower urinary tract infections and GSM with a special focus on the lifelong research in the field by Professor Linda Cardozo.