Artificial intelligence in forensic science: a systematic review. Part I: personal identification

Abstract Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a promising tool in forensic sciences, offering new opportunities for personal identification through automated analysis of biological and imaging data. AI-based approaches have been increasingly applied to tasks such as sex estimation, human identification, ancestry estimation, and kinship analysis. This systematic review aims to synthesize the available evidence regarding the applications, methodological characteristics, and performance of AI models in forensic personal identification. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus following PRISMA guidelines. Studies investigating AI applications for forensic identification were included. Data extraction focused on study characteristics, dataset type, AI model architecture, forensic task, validation strategy, and reported performance metrics. A total of 89 studies published between 2012 and 2026 met the inclusion criteria. The majority of studies focused on sex estimation (63%), followed by human identification, ancestry estimation, multi-task prediction, and kinship verification. Most studies relied on imaging datasets, particularly computed tomography and radiographic images. Deep learning models represented the most frequently used analytical approaches. Reported accuracy values were generally high, with a median accuracy of 91.4% and an interquartile range of 88.9–95.0% in studies reporting single-value accuracy metrics. Deep learning approaches tended to achieve slightly higher performance than traditional machine learning models. AI shows considerable potential to support forensic personal identification, particularly in imaging-based applications. However, methodological heterogeneity, population-specific datasets, and limited external validation remain important challenges. Future research should prioritize standardized validation protocols, multi-population datasets, and transparent reporting to ensure the forensic applicability of AI-based identification systems.