Various Methods of Fluoride Exposure and Its Effects on Oral and General Health: A Review

Fluoride is widely used in dentistry for the prevention of dental caries; however, excessive exposure has emerged as a significant public health concern, particularly in fluoride-endemic regions such as India. The effects of fluoride are dose- and duration-dependent, exhibiting both beneficial and harmful outcomes. This review evaluates the sources of fluoride exposure, prevalence of fluorosis, underlying biological mechanisms, and associated systemic health effects based on published systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and epidemiological studies. Evidence suggests that optimal fluoride intake plays a crucial role in reducing dental caries, whereas chronic high exposure results in dental and skeletal fluorosis, along with potential systemic effects, including neurodevelopmental concerns in children. Drinking water remains the principal source of fluoride exposure, followed by dental products, dietary intake, and fluoride supplements. Additionally, variations in awareness and preventive practices among healthcare professionals and communities contribute to the persistence of fluoride-related conditions. Therefore, maintaining a balance in fluoride usage, regular monitoring of fluoride levels in drinking water, and strengthening public health education are essential to maximize its preventive benefits while minimizing toxicity.