Nurturing self-efficacy through inclusivity and support systems: Improving livelihoods of vulnerable farmers via SHEP approach in Kenya

• Self-efficacy is hailed as crucial for improving the livelihoods of vulnerable farmers • Two distinct domains of self-efficacy, production and management, emerge as crucial • Nurturing their self-efficacy contributes to improved long-term food stocks • Short-term gains through interventions can accumulate into long-term benefits for farmers • Self-efficacy and inclusivity work synergistically to improve the livelihoods of vulnerable farmers Self-efficacy is increasingly recognized as essential for improving the livelihoods of vulnerable farmers, yet agricultural interventions often overlook their unique challenges and fail to offer tailored support. Existing literature rarely examines how interventions cultivate self-efficacy or its influence on long-term outcomes such as food sufficiency. This study aimed to address this gap by examining the effect of nurturing self-efficacy on the long-term food stock changes among vulnerable farmers participating in the Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment and Promotion (SHEP) program in Kenya. Data were collected through purposive sampling from 136 farmers, including individuals with disabilities, widows, and caregivers, across four counties using a structured questionnaire. The study captured variables influencing self-efficacy and tracked food stock status at the project's start, its conclusion, and four years post-completion. Exploratory Factor Analysis was employed to extract factors, followed by Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modeling for in-depth analysis. The study identified two domains of self-efficacy, management and production, examined their contributing factors, and established their linkage to long-term food stock outcomes. Inclusivity, essential support, and leadership enhanced management self-efficacy, while access to resources and involvement positively influenced production self-efficacy. The SHEP intervention directly contributed to management self-efficacy, indirectly enhanced production self-efficacy, and directly influenced long-term food stock changes. Notably, production self-efficacy impacted long-term food stocks, and the relationship was strengthened by inclusivity. Additionally, short-term food stock changes positively correlated with long-term stocks. This study moves beyond the short-term outcomes reported in existing literature to assess long-term food stock changes several years post-intervention. The findings highlight the importance of fostering self-efficacy through inclusive and supportive mechanisms for sustaining livelihood improvements among vulnerable populations, offering actionable insights for designing equitable agricultural interventions.