Monitoring and assessment of spatiotemporal soil salinization in the Lake Urmia region

Abstract Soil salinization stands as a prominent global environmental challenge, necessitating enhanced assessment methodologies. This study is dedicated to refining soil salinity assessment in the Lake Urmia region of Iran, utilizing multi-year data spanning from 2015 to 2018. To achieve this objective, soil salinity was measured at 915 sampling points during the 2015–2018 timeframe. Simultaneously, remote sensing data were derived from surface reflectance data over the same study period. Four distinct scenarios were considered such as a newly developed spectral index (Scenario I), the newly developed index combined with other salt-based spectral indices from the literature (Scenario II), indirect spectral indices based on vegetation and soil characteristics (Scenario III), and the amalgamation of both direct and indirect spectral indices (Scenario IV). Linear Regression (LR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Random Forest (RF) were employed to assess soil salinity. The measured data divided to 75% of the data as the calibration dataset, while the remaining 25% constituted the validation dataset. The findings revealed a correlation between soil salinity and spectral indices from the literature, with a range of -0.53 to 0.51, while the newly developed spectral index exhibited a stronger correlation (r = 0.59). Furthermore, RF yielded superior results when using the newly developed spectral index (Scenario I). Overall, SVM emerged as the most effective model (ME = -9.678, R 2 = 0.751, and RPIQ = 1.78) when integrating direct and indirect spectral indices (Scenario IV). This study demonstrates the efficacy of combining machine learning techniques with a blend of newly developed and existing spectral indices from the literature for the monitoring of soil salinity, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.